Reformation
Causes of the Protestant Reformation
The Catholic church in the 1500 stood amidst a crisis. Desperate to recapture its former glory and influence, the papacy seemed to focus more on artistic patronage and Machiavellian politics than the spiritual state of its flock. Abuses that began during the Babylonian Captivity festered and produced a general cry for reform, a cry generally ignored by corrupt popes fearful of limits on their power by church councils. These abuses were:
Simony- The buying and selling of high church offices
Nepotism- The granting of offices to relatives
Pluralism- The holding of multiple church offices
Indulgences- paying to have sins forgave and time in purgatory reduced
It was the last abuse that sparked the Reformation, but prior to this spark, recall that a goodly pile of tinder had been accumulating for generations.
Simony- The buying and selling of high church offices
Nepotism- The granting of offices to relatives
Pluralism- The holding of multiple church offices
Indulgences- paying to have sins forgave and time in purgatory reduced
It was the last abuse that sparked the Reformation, but prior to this spark, recall that a goodly pile of tinder had been accumulating for generations.
Luther and Lutheranism
The Protestant Reformation began with one man's crisis. This crisis revolved around a nagging but central question in Christianity: "How can I be saved?" It is common to think of Luther as attacking the abuses of the church, but his critiques went far beyond.Luther questioned not only the practices of the church, but condemned it for teaching wrongly, ultimately calling into question the entire sacramental system of the Catholic church as it related to salvation.
In a complex transaction, Pope Leo X (1513-1521) allowed in 1517 the sale of indulgences by the monk Johan Tetzel to finance the building of St. Peter's Basilca in Rome. Luther responded almost immediately with the ninety-five theses, wherein he condemned the sale of indulgences as a twisting the central mystery of Christianity. Luther had previously been working out in his reading and lecturing a different view conception salvation. A decisive break from the church would be clear within the next few years as Luther continued to publish his pamphlets and denounce what he considered false teachings of the church. Luther's new theology can be summarized in three Latin phrases:
Sola scriptura- The only authority in Christianity is the Bible
Sola fide- Salvation comes from faith alone
Sola gratia- Salvation comes from the free gist of God's grace
In some ways Luther's attacks only echoed many of the critiques made by Hus, Wycliffe, and even Erasmus. What made Lutheranism successful was the urgency and passion with which Luther conveyed his message,and, more important, the printing press. It is hard to imagine the success of Luther without the large amounts of propaganda printed. To illustrate, in the first 10 years of the Reformation, one-quarter of the books published in Germany were by Luther. In addition, many of the publications were not designed for intellectual theologians . Songs, sermons, and woodcuts mocking the Pope all appealed to the mass audience. One very important publication was the German translation of the bible, which was usually in Latin and reserved for the clergyman and theologians, was now available to all including women.
It is often said that Luther contained the fire of a theological revolutionary but the caution of a social and political conservative. Luther was a complex figure who recognized that his attack on the Catholic church could rip the whole of society apart. For Luther the "real" church was the spiritual one of the next world; because perfection could not be reached on earth due to the sinful nature of humans, social and political revolution was self defeating.
Luther's message inspired many other reformers, many of whom interpreted it in more radical ways. German firebrands applied Luther's ideas of the "priesthood of all believers" more literally, to indicate a move towards social equality. These leaders supported the Peasants' Revolt of 1524-1525 the product of long-standing economic grievances and the new religious ideals. Luther was incensed, denouncing the firebrands and the peasants in "Against the Murdering and Robbing Horde of Peasants" wherein he called for the death of all those who challenge legitimate authority, and who pervert the the true Christian message, which was spiritual not political. Ultimately the peasants were crushed at the cost of 100,000 lives, and Luther gained the reputation of intolerance. Another reason for Luther's attitude toward social upheaval lies in his need for support among the German princes, the only force standing between him and Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, before whom Luther stood in defiance at the Diet of Worms.
Through a series of untimely deaths and timely marriages, Charles V (1516-1556) stood in 1519 as the most powerful ruler in Europe, controlling Spain, the low countries, the Holy Roman Empire, significant parts of Italy, and the Spanish Empire in the new world. Charles recognized the need for reform in the church and urged the Pope to call a general council unsuccessful until 1545. At the same time Charles believed it was his responsibility to maintain the political unity of the Catholic church. Charles was occupied fighting many wars in his reign to maintain his far-flung possessions in the face of his enemies:
Ottoman Turks- The Ottomans killed Charles's brother-in-law in battle in 1526, taking Hungary and moving to besiege Vienna.
France (Valois)- Francis I represent Charles most consistent rival. The perennial goal of France aimed to avoid encirclement by the Habsburgs and prevent the centralization of the power in Germany. The Habsburg-Valois Wars (1494-1559) began in Italy but eventually intruded into the outcome of the reformation in Germany, as Francis, though a Catholic, took the side of the German Protestants.
The Papacy- Though both Charles and the pope shared an interest in salvaging Catholicism, they differed in tactics and political goals, especially when Charles troops sacked Rome in 1527, effectively bringing the Renaissance to an end.
German Lutherans- Early in Charles reign he was forced to compromise with the Lutherans. An imperial diet at Speyer attempted to impose a religious settlement but failed when Lutherans protested (which accounts for the name "Protestant"). By 1546, Charles was prepared to solve the issue with force. The Lutheran princes had formed the Schmalkaldic League and were prepared to resist with aid from outside powers.
To settle the religious conflict in Germany, Charles agreed in 1555 to the Peace of Augsburg, which employed the compromise formula "Whose rule ,his religion" to divide the Empire between Lutheran and Catholic areas, to be determined by individual rulers. It is important to not this did not promote religious toleration, only a relatively balance of powers between religions.
In a complex transaction, Pope Leo X (1513-1521) allowed in 1517 the sale of indulgences by the monk Johan Tetzel to finance the building of St. Peter's Basilca in Rome. Luther responded almost immediately with the ninety-five theses, wherein he condemned the sale of indulgences as a twisting the central mystery of Christianity. Luther had previously been working out in his reading and lecturing a different view conception salvation. A decisive break from the church would be clear within the next few years as Luther continued to publish his pamphlets and denounce what he considered false teachings of the church. Luther's new theology can be summarized in three Latin phrases:
Sola scriptura- The only authority in Christianity is the Bible
Sola fide- Salvation comes from faith alone
Sola gratia- Salvation comes from the free gist of God's grace
In some ways Luther's attacks only echoed many of the critiques made by Hus, Wycliffe, and even Erasmus. What made Lutheranism successful was the urgency and passion with which Luther conveyed his message,and, more important, the printing press. It is hard to imagine the success of Luther without the large amounts of propaganda printed. To illustrate, in the first 10 years of the Reformation, one-quarter of the books published in Germany were by Luther. In addition, many of the publications were not designed for intellectual theologians . Songs, sermons, and woodcuts mocking the Pope all appealed to the mass audience. One very important publication was the German translation of the bible, which was usually in Latin and reserved for the clergyman and theologians, was now available to all including women.
It is often said that Luther contained the fire of a theological revolutionary but the caution of a social and political conservative. Luther was a complex figure who recognized that his attack on the Catholic church could rip the whole of society apart. For Luther the "real" church was the spiritual one of the next world; because perfection could not be reached on earth due to the sinful nature of humans, social and political revolution was self defeating.
Luther's message inspired many other reformers, many of whom interpreted it in more radical ways. German firebrands applied Luther's ideas of the "priesthood of all believers" more literally, to indicate a move towards social equality. These leaders supported the Peasants' Revolt of 1524-1525 the product of long-standing economic grievances and the new religious ideals. Luther was incensed, denouncing the firebrands and the peasants in "Against the Murdering and Robbing Horde of Peasants" wherein he called for the death of all those who challenge legitimate authority, and who pervert the the true Christian message, which was spiritual not political. Ultimately the peasants were crushed at the cost of 100,000 lives, and Luther gained the reputation of intolerance. Another reason for Luther's attitude toward social upheaval lies in his need for support among the German princes, the only force standing between him and Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, before whom Luther stood in defiance at the Diet of Worms.
Through a series of untimely deaths and timely marriages, Charles V (1516-1556) stood in 1519 as the most powerful ruler in Europe, controlling Spain, the low countries, the Holy Roman Empire, significant parts of Italy, and the Spanish Empire in the new world. Charles recognized the need for reform in the church and urged the Pope to call a general council unsuccessful until 1545. At the same time Charles believed it was his responsibility to maintain the political unity of the Catholic church. Charles was occupied fighting many wars in his reign to maintain his far-flung possessions in the face of his enemies:
Ottoman Turks- The Ottomans killed Charles's brother-in-law in battle in 1526, taking Hungary and moving to besiege Vienna.
France (Valois)- Francis I represent Charles most consistent rival. The perennial goal of France aimed to avoid encirclement by the Habsburgs and prevent the centralization of the power in Germany. The Habsburg-Valois Wars (1494-1559) began in Italy but eventually intruded into the outcome of the reformation in Germany, as Francis, though a Catholic, took the side of the German Protestants.
The Papacy- Though both Charles and the pope shared an interest in salvaging Catholicism, they differed in tactics and political goals, especially when Charles troops sacked Rome in 1527, effectively bringing the Renaissance to an end.
German Lutherans- Early in Charles reign he was forced to compromise with the Lutherans. An imperial diet at Speyer attempted to impose a religious settlement but failed when Lutherans protested (which accounts for the name "Protestant"). By 1546, Charles was prepared to solve the issue with force. The Lutheran princes had formed the Schmalkaldic League and were prepared to resist with aid from outside powers.
To settle the religious conflict in Germany, Charles agreed in 1555 to the Peace of Augsburg, which employed the compromise formula "Whose rule ,his religion" to divide the Empire between Lutheran and Catholic areas, to be determined by individual rulers. It is important to not this did not promote religious toleration, only a relatively balance of powers between religions.
Calvin's Second Wave
By 1540, the Protestant Reformation already required a boost; John Calvin (1509-1564) provided just that. A second-generation reformer, Calvin was born in France and received a strong humanist education. Unlike Luther, Calvin studied to be a priest but switched to the legal profession. Calvin set up his reform movement in in Switzerland, and after some initial turmoil was recognized as the unquestionable leader of Geneva.
Calvin accepted much of Luther's reformed theology but placed more emphasis on predestination, the notion that God foreknows and forejudges each individual prior to birth. Those who were saved ("the elect") did not suffer from spiritual complacency. In Institutes of the Christian Religion, originally published in 1536, Calvin synthesized a generation of reformed theology, while providing tactics for organizing a reform movement. Genevan politics were guided by the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which divided the church into;
Doctors- who studied scripture
pastors- who preached the word of god
deacons- who administered charity
elders- who ensured discipline
Elders employed the Consistory practice "Christian watchfulness" who punished anyone who violated laws on public morality such as drunkenness. Compared to Luther, Calvin believed the fundamental purpose of the political system was to fulfill the moral law of a Christian community.
Calvinism spread quickly among the nobility and middle class, many of whom likely believed themselves to be the elect and who resented the privileges of the clergy. To promote the spread of the Reformation, Calvin founded the Genevan Academy in 1559, designed to train leaders who would sow the seeds of Calvinism in other locales. Perhaps the most famous graduate was John Knox (1505-1572) , who brought Calvinism to Scotland. Calvinist represented the forefront of a militant protestant movement dedicated to battling the still-strong power of Catholicism.
Calvin accepted much of Luther's reformed theology but placed more emphasis on predestination, the notion that God foreknows and forejudges each individual prior to birth. Those who were saved ("the elect") did not suffer from spiritual complacency. In Institutes of the Christian Religion, originally published in 1536, Calvin synthesized a generation of reformed theology, while providing tactics for organizing a reform movement. Genevan politics were guided by the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which divided the church into;
Doctors- who studied scripture
pastors- who preached the word of god
deacons- who administered charity
elders- who ensured discipline
Elders employed the Consistory practice "Christian watchfulness" who punished anyone who violated laws on public morality such as drunkenness. Compared to Luther, Calvin believed the fundamental purpose of the political system was to fulfill the moral law of a Christian community.
Calvinism spread quickly among the nobility and middle class, many of whom likely believed themselves to be the elect and who resented the privileges of the clergy. To promote the spread of the Reformation, Calvin founded the Genevan Academy in 1559, designed to train leaders who would sow the seeds of Calvinism in other locales. Perhaps the most famous graduate was John Knox (1505-1572) , who brought Calvinism to Scotland. Calvinist represented the forefront of a militant protestant movement dedicated to battling the still-strong power of Catholicism.
Evangelical Reformers
Some historians divide the Reformation into evangelical and magisterial branches. The former refers to the grassroots movement of individual persons, towns, and communities spreading the new reform gospel through preaching, conversion, and town disputations. Lets look at some more radical reformers.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) claimed to preach a reformed message prior to Luther, but there is little evidence to this. It was in his native Zurich where Zwingli established a reform movement more radical in style than Luther's. Like Luther, Zwingli accepted two sacraments but disagreed with him over the meaning of the Lord's Supper. While Luther argued a real presence of Jesus coexisted with the bread and wine (called consubstantiation), Zwingli held Luther's position to be illogical. Zwingli held that this was only a symbolic meaning. In the context of the mounting power of the emperor, Luther and Zwingli met in attempt to settle their disagreement. The subsequent Marburg Colloquy failed miserably, and as a result, Zwingli was killed in 1531 in the Swiss Civil War. Before he died, however Zwingli had laid the basis for a different style of worship. Followers of Zwingli broke organs, smashed statuary, and painted churches white, all in an effort to focus the believer's attention on the Word of God.
The first 20 years of the Reformation was a period of great ferment and experimentation. In many areas, it was women who first accepted the reform message, spreading the gospel and converting their husbands, father, and brothers. A famous example is Catherine Zell (1498-1562), who, along with her husband, preached, wrote, and ministered to the poor. One movement associated with this trend toward equality was Anabaptism. Anabaptist's believed membership in a Christian community was an adult choice, and therefore practiced adult baptism. More important, they tended to take the Bible more literally when it came to living apart from worldly temptations. Because they advocated the total separation of church and state, Anabaptist were hated by Catholics and other Protestant denominations. For the most part, Anabaptist, lived in small peaceful communities and posed little real threat to the state. An exception to this was a movement established by Jan of Leiden who declared himself King of Munster, introduced polygramy, burned all the books except for the bible, and proclaimed the imminent end of the world. One matter Catholics and Lutherans could agree on was that movements like Munster's went too far: Jan of Leiden was tortured and executed.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) claimed to preach a reformed message prior to Luther, but there is little evidence to this. It was in his native Zurich where Zwingli established a reform movement more radical in style than Luther's. Like Luther, Zwingli accepted two sacraments but disagreed with him over the meaning of the Lord's Supper. While Luther argued a real presence of Jesus coexisted with the bread and wine (called consubstantiation), Zwingli held Luther's position to be illogical. Zwingli held that this was only a symbolic meaning. In the context of the mounting power of the emperor, Luther and Zwingli met in attempt to settle their disagreement. The subsequent Marburg Colloquy failed miserably, and as a result, Zwingli was killed in 1531 in the Swiss Civil War. Before he died, however Zwingli had laid the basis for a different style of worship. Followers of Zwingli broke organs, smashed statuary, and painted churches white, all in an effort to focus the believer's attention on the Word of God.
The first 20 years of the Reformation was a period of great ferment and experimentation. In many areas, it was women who first accepted the reform message, spreading the gospel and converting their husbands, father, and brothers. A famous example is Catherine Zell (1498-1562), who, along with her husband, preached, wrote, and ministered to the poor. One movement associated with this trend toward equality was Anabaptism. Anabaptist's believed membership in a Christian community was an adult choice, and therefore practiced adult baptism. More important, they tended to take the Bible more literally when it came to living apart from worldly temptations. Because they advocated the total separation of church and state, Anabaptist were hated by Catholics and other Protestant denominations. For the most part, Anabaptist, lived in small peaceful communities and posed little real threat to the state. An exception to this was a movement established by Jan of Leiden who declared himself King of Munster, introduced polygramy, burned all the books except for the bible, and proclaimed the imminent end of the world. One matter Catholics and Lutherans could agree on was that movements like Munster's went too far: Jan of Leiden was tortured and executed.
Magisterial Reform in England
The most well-known magisterial reform occurred in England. Though Lutheran ideas had gained a few adherents in the kingdom, Henry VIII (1509-1547) tolerated little opposition to the Catholic faith, having earned the title "defender of faith" for penning a response to Luther's attack on the sacraments. Henry had no male heir, and blamed his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Normally Henry's appeal for a divorce would have been granted by Pope Clement VII (1523-1534), but he was under the control of Charles V, who happened to be the nephew of Catherine.
After years and numerous appeals, Henry was desperate, having fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, whom he impregnated. In 1533, Henry acted with the support of parliament. First, the Parliament declared Henry the head of the Catholic church in England with the Act of Supremacy. Further, the Act of Succession legitimated the offspring of Henry and Anne (the future Elizabeth I). With the aid of his prime minister, Thomas Cromwell, Henry also moved confiscate the lands of the church. Henry held no interest in Religious reform, getting parliament to confirm distinctive Catholic practices such as clerical celibacy in the Six Articles. Many English reformers, such as the new Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, wished to take to reform further. They would have to wait until Henry died and his sickly teenage son, Edward VI (1547-1553), succeeded him in 1547.
Under Edward, the reform moved in more of a Zwinglian direction, with the new Book of Common Prayer and Act of Uniformity providing a simpler interpretation of worship. Edward's early death in 1553 turned England again back into the Catholic camp, under Mary I (1553-1558), the daughter of the scorned Catherine of Aragon and wife of Philip II (1556-1598) , king of Spain. Mary's persecution of Protestants and pro-Spanish foreign policy earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary" and did little in the long run to reestablish Catholicism in England.
It was Elizabeth I (1558-1603) who met with the most success in establishing a compromise, often called the Elizabethan Settlement. Elizabeth represented a new type of leader, termed a politique, or one who places political unity over religious dogma. She refrained from persecuting religious minorities, with the exception of Catholics.She engineered a new book of common prayer, vague enough in language to satisfy all interpretations. These compromises were cemented in the Thirty-Nine Articles. At the same time, Elizabeth could play the "lion", as she demonstrated when she had her cousin, Mary of Scotland executed for plotting her assassination, and defending England from the Spanish Armada in 1588. By the end of her reign, often called the Golden Age, Elizabeth had established England as the leading Protestant power in Europe.
After years and numerous appeals, Henry was desperate, having fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, whom he impregnated. In 1533, Henry acted with the support of parliament. First, the Parliament declared Henry the head of the Catholic church in England with the Act of Supremacy. Further, the Act of Succession legitimated the offspring of Henry and Anne (the future Elizabeth I). With the aid of his prime minister, Thomas Cromwell, Henry also moved confiscate the lands of the church. Henry held no interest in Religious reform, getting parliament to confirm distinctive Catholic practices such as clerical celibacy in the Six Articles. Many English reformers, such as the new Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, wished to take to reform further. They would have to wait until Henry died and his sickly teenage son, Edward VI (1547-1553), succeeded him in 1547.
Under Edward, the reform moved in more of a Zwinglian direction, with the new Book of Common Prayer and Act of Uniformity providing a simpler interpretation of worship. Edward's early death in 1553 turned England again back into the Catholic camp, under Mary I (1553-1558), the daughter of the scorned Catherine of Aragon and wife of Philip II (1556-1598) , king of Spain. Mary's persecution of Protestants and pro-Spanish foreign policy earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary" and did little in the long run to reestablish Catholicism in England.
It was Elizabeth I (1558-1603) who met with the most success in establishing a compromise, often called the Elizabethan Settlement. Elizabeth represented a new type of leader, termed a politique, or one who places political unity over religious dogma. She refrained from persecuting religious minorities, with the exception of Catholics.She engineered a new book of common prayer, vague enough in language to satisfy all interpretations. These compromises were cemented in the Thirty-Nine Articles. At the same time, Elizabeth could play the "lion", as she demonstrated when she had her cousin, Mary of Scotland executed for plotting her assassination, and defending England from the Spanish Armada in 1588. By the end of her reign, often called the Golden Age, Elizabeth had established England as the leading Protestant power in Europe.
Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was primary a religious movement, yet it led to profound consequences for social life. We now look briefly at several affected areas:
Family and gender: As a result of the Protestant Reformation, family was placed at the center of social life. Celibacy was abolished, and for many former clergy, like Luther, took spouses and glorified the martial bond as the most natural God-like. Though women preached early on and earned limited rights of divorce, as well as education, Luther, Calvin and other reformist preached that women's natural sphere was the domestic. Further, religious vocations and female religious images were removed from churches.
Education: There is no doubt that Protestant Reformation spurred education. With the emphasis on Bible-reading, it was important to ensure literacy for boys and girls. Luther's colleague and defender, Philip Melancthon (1497-1560), earned the nickname Praeceptor Germanie (Teacher of Germany) for advocating a system of basic schooling called the Gymnasia.
Social Classes: Other than Firebrands, few Reformers explicitly argued for social equality. However, some historians have argued that a "Protestant work ethic" spurred the development of capitalism, and therefore strengthen the middle class. Supposedly, the emphasis on deferring gratification and building a godly city on earth led to en athic of hard work and capital accumulation.
Religious practices: For centuries, European religious life had centered around the church calendar, with it's saint's feast days, Carnival and Lent, sacraments, rituals and clerical importance. In many lands, these practices were either abolished or modified. Protestant nations placed more of an emphasis on Bible-reading and sought to eliminate externals.
Family and gender: As a result of the Protestant Reformation, family was placed at the center of social life. Celibacy was abolished, and for many former clergy, like Luther, took spouses and glorified the martial bond as the most natural God-like. Though women preached early on and earned limited rights of divorce, as well as education, Luther, Calvin and other reformist preached that women's natural sphere was the domestic. Further, religious vocations and female religious images were removed from churches.
Education: There is no doubt that Protestant Reformation spurred education. With the emphasis on Bible-reading, it was important to ensure literacy for boys and girls. Luther's colleague and defender, Philip Melancthon (1497-1560), earned the nickname Praeceptor Germanie (Teacher of Germany) for advocating a system of basic schooling called the Gymnasia.
Social Classes: Other than Firebrands, few Reformers explicitly argued for social equality. However, some historians have argued that a "Protestant work ethic" spurred the development of capitalism, and therefore strengthen the middle class. Supposedly, the emphasis on deferring gratification and building a godly city on earth led to en athic of hard work and capital accumulation.
Religious practices: For centuries, European religious life had centered around the church calendar, with it's saint's feast days, Carnival and Lent, sacraments, rituals and clerical importance. In many lands, these practices were either abolished or modified. Protestant nations placed more of an emphasis on Bible-reading and sought to eliminate externals.
Catholic Revival and Reform
Even before 1517, many Catholics recognized the need for reform. In fact, reform was already under way if we consider the lay piety movement and writings of Christian Humanists. Under Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517), Spain had already addressed many clerical abuses and had already tightened restrictions on training priest. Finally, under the pontificate of Paul III (1334-1549), the hierarchical church finally responded to the challenge of the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic response was multipronged and complex. Those actions designed to revive Catholic spirituality are often termed the Catholic Reformation, while those designed to negatively stop the spread of the Protestant Reformation are called the Counter-Reformation. Following is a list of actions, positive and negative, taken by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation.
New Religious orders- For the Catholics, their connection to the church was their parish priest. Thus a major element of reform involved a revival of religious orders and the establishment of new ones. The most important of these was the Society of Jesus. or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) in the 1540s. His important book, Spiritual Exercises, contains the famous phrase, "If I see a thing to be white but the institutional church commands it to be black, I will see it as black." Jesuits had no national bases seeing themselves as "troops of the pope", though the primary worked through education and argument. Jesuits were able to re-Catholocize large parts of Eastern Europe, including Poland and Hungry after 1560. Angela Merici (1474-1540) founded the Ursulines to bring education to girls. The Spanish mystic, Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) saw visions of Jesus and founded the discalced Carmelites dedicated to a life of contemplation and service. Also, a group of laypeople and clergy formed the Oratory of Divine Love to push for reform in the church and assist one another in living simply piety lives. Finally, a new breed of hard working bishops emerged, such as Gian Matteo Giberti (1495-1543) of Verona and Cardinal Charles Borromeo (1538-1584) of Milan.
Council of Trent (1545-1563)- Though rather poorly attended, the council finally got the church's house in order. First, the cardinals (mostly from Italy and Spain) eliminated many church abuses and provided for better education and regulation of priests. Second, the church refused to compromise on religious doctrines, reaffirming distinctive Catholic practices such as clerical celibacy, the importance of good works, the authority of the papacy, and transubstantiation. According to transubstantiation though retaining the "incidents" of wine and bread such as the texture and taste, they truly transformed into another substance (the body and blood of Jesus) during Mass.
Strengthening the Papacy and Inquisition (1542)- To better meet the challenge of unorthodox belief, the Papal bureaucracy was centralized and strengthened. A major feature of this revamping was the creation of the Roman Inquisition (not to be confused with the Spanish Inquisition), designed to root out perceived heresies. In the long run, the Inquisition had a chilling effect on intellectual life in Italy.
Index of Prohibited Books- Under the conservative pontificate of Pope Paul IV (1555-1559), the church decided to clamp down on any printed materials that threatened to mislead the faithful away from orthodox interpretations of the magisterium. Though with limited impact the index continued until the twentieth century.
Baroque Art- In effort to revive spirituality, the church patronized an artistic movement that emphasized grandeur, illusion, and dramatic religiosity. Multifaceted artists such as Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini ( 1598-1680) helped rebuild Rome as a showplace of Catholic piety.
How successful was the Catholic response?
By 1560, the religious divide in Europe was an accomplished fact; in that sense, the Catholic response came too little too late. On the other hand, some parts of Europe had been re-Catholicized, and the church emerged from its reforms stronger and more militant than in the 1500, before the Reformation. One fact is sure: after the completion of the Council of Trent's work in 1564, no religious compromise was possible.
New Religious orders- For the Catholics, their connection to the church was their parish priest. Thus a major element of reform involved a revival of religious orders and the establishment of new ones. The most important of these was the Society of Jesus. or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) in the 1540s. His important book, Spiritual Exercises, contains the famous phrase, "If I see a thing to be white but the institutional church commands it to be black, I will see it as black." Jesuits had no national bases seeing themselves as "troops of the pope", though the primary worked through education and argument. Jesuits were able to re-Catholocize large parts of Eastern Europe, including Poland and Hungry after 1560. Angela Merici (1474-1540) founded the Ursulines to bring education to girls. The Spanish mystic, Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) saw visions of Jesus and founded the discalced Carmelites dedicated to a life of contemplation and service. Also, a group of laypeople and clergy formed the Oratory of Divine Love to push for reform in the church and assist one another in living simply piety lives. Finally, a new breed of hard working bishops emerged, such as Gian Matteo Giberti (1495-1543) of Verona and Cardinal Charles Borromeo (1538-1584) of Milan.
Council of Trent (1545-1563)- Though rather poorly attended, the council finally got the church's house in order. First, the cardinals (mostly from Italy and Spain) eliminated many church abuses and provided for better education and regulation of priests. Second, the church refused to compromise on religious doctrines, reaffirming distinctive Catholic practices such as clerical celibacy, the importance of good works, the authority of the papacy, and transubstantiation. According to transubstantiation though retaining the "incidents" of wine and bread such as the texture and taste, they truly transformed into another substance (the body and blood of Jesus) during Mass.
Strengthening the Papacy and Inquisition (1542)- To better meet the challenge of unorthodox belief, the Papal bureaucracy was centralized and strengthened. A major feature of this revamping was the creation of the Roman Inquisition (not to be confused with the Spanish Inquisition), designed to root out perceived heresies. In the long run, the Inquisition had a chilling effect on intellectual life in Italy.
Index of Prohibited Books- Under the conservative pontificate of Pope Paul IV (1555-1559), the church decided to clamp down on any printed materials that threatened to mislead the faithful away from orthodox interpretations of the magisterium. Though with limited impact the index continued until the twentieth century.
Baroque Art- In effort to revive spirituality, the church patronized an artistic movement that emphasized grandeur, illusion, and dramatic religiosity. Multifaceted artists such as Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini ( 1598-1680) helped rebuild Rome as a showplace of Catholic piety.
How successful was the Catholic response?
By 1560, the religious divide in Europe was an accomplished fact; in that sense, the Catholic response came too little too late. On the other hand, some parts of Europe had been re-Catholicized, and the church emerged from its reforms stronger and more militant than in the 1500, before the Reformation. One fact is sure: after the completion of the Council of Trent's work in 1564, no religious compromise was possible.